Four Stages of Change

The first act of change is denial. For most people in this stage, change is not easy to accept, and they react to it with a sense of denial or inability to see a problem. People in this stage do not believe that change is happening realistically. To avoid showing denial, people try to focus their attention on other things. In Jamie Oliver's episodes, the citizens of Huntington focused their attention on things, such as, the amount of money it costs to buy healthier food and how much more time it would take to prepare it.The lunch ladies were very close-minded and seemed to always have an argument of denial against what Jamie was trying to preach to them. At one point in an episode, the head lunch lady even stated, â€Å"why fix something that isn’t broken. † But, the reality is, that the food and overweight issues in the small town of Huntington is an issue. They just do not want to come to terms with facing it. Change is often interpreted as foreign and uncertain feeli ngs, so people shift their attention to past customs and what makes them feel secure.Jamie's role in this stage is to help the people of Huntington understand what is happening and how it affects them. The second act of change is resistance. People begin to resist change when they realize that the change is taking place whether they want it to or not. Feelings of anger, doubt, fear, and anxiety begin to develop, which can hinder the process of change. In Jamie Oliver's episodes, the lunch ladies of the elementary school exemplified a great deal of resistance in the change Jamie was trying to put forth.They constantly spoke about how they didn’t think that what Jamie was doing would work, and constantly complained about the new roles and strategies outlined for them. These things happen because people get pushed out of their comfort zone, and arguments and non-cooperation are ways in which team members show their resistance to change. In this stage, Jamie lends an ear to the t eam members concerns surrounding the change, and tries to encourage them that everything will work out.The third stage of change is consideration. Here, team members give up on arguments and begin to become a â€Å"team player. † People start acting and learning the new ways to contribute towards the changing process. They understand the rationality of the change, and how they are an important aspect in making that change happen. Rhonda began to consider the change process when she saw how the young children reacted to the healthier food that Jamie provided for them. She gave Jamie more time to allow his process to take place.Also, the parents started â€Å"jumping on board† when they watched the demonstration that Jamie put on for them about what their kids are really eating, and how much nutrition they are really getting. People in this stage begin to start contributing towards the change to find out what is really in store for them. Jamie does a great job of helping the team members participate actively and providing them with the knowledge and training that will make them more comfortable in their new roles. The final stage of change is acceptance. In this stage, productivity and emotions are completely restored.Members of the change process begin to accept their new roles and begin to settle in, as they gain more control in whats happening. An example of this taking place is when the high school lunch ladies committed to cooking the food from scratch, as they gave their support to Jamie's cause. Jamie rewards and acknowledges the ladies for their dedication and contributions as he continues to motivate them to stay committed. It is going through this final stage of change that allows the process to actually take place within itself.

Final Documentation Essay

I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Problem 1.2 Overview of the Current Sate of Technology 1.3 Project Rationale II. PROJECT DESCRIPTION 2.1 Problem Statement 2.1.1 Major Statement 2.1.2 Minor Statement 2.2 Proposed Research Project 2.2.1 General Objectives 2.2.2 Specific Objectives 2.2.3 Scope and Limitations 2.2.4 Methodology III. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 3.1 Calendar of Activities 3.1.1 Description of Activities 3.1.2 GANTT Chart of Activities 3.2 Resources 3.2.1 Hardware 3.2.2 Software IV. APPENDIX 4.1 References 4.2 Resource Person/s 4.3 Personal Technical Vitae I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Problem Mystical Rose School of Caloocan Inc. was founded by Dr. Marcelina Gregore in 1993. It is located at Ilang-Ilang Street, Almar Subdivision, Camarin, Caloocan City. Since the day the school has been founded they were using the manual library system, which give them hard time to record all the information. The library has this Accession Book where the incoming books and information about the books are recorded. The book records were done manually. Every time a student asks about a kind of book, the librarian finds it hard to locate, because she still needs to go through the list in the Accession Book. Although each book has a unique Accession Number still the librarian couldn’t manage to find it easily because the records of the books in the Accession Book are according to the date received. It takes more time for the librarian to find the record of each book. The librarian also encounter problems in encoding the books’ information because of disorganized records because information about the books is being unmonitored, in a way that some books are not yet listed on the Accession Book. And aside from the Accession Book they are also using the Card Catalog which serves as a guide in locating the books. There are huge amount of books in the library. It has different volumes, editions, authors, class, titles, subjects, years and publishers, and the accession number which set as a unique identity in every book in their library. It is very hard for the librarian to monitor all the books especially when it is encoded manually. 1.2 Overview of the Current State of Technology A student who will use the library must log in first to the attendance book before they enter the library. They have to fill up the information needed like date, student’s name, year & section, time in and out and their signature. If they will borrow books the librarian will record it to the log book. The people who can use the Library are the students, faculty and the Librarian. The Librarian is not required to go to the library every day. The librarian is on call. She has a schedule when to go to the school. When the librarian is not on schedule, the Aid takes the place on the work of the librarian. A student is allowed to borrow how many books they want when they are in the library. The student is also allowed to borrow two books with duration of two days. If the student failed to return the books within two days they are not allowed to borrow books the next time they borrow. And they are not allowed to bring it at home instead they could only borrow when they are inside the library. If the student lost the book, they must replace it with the same book. If the faculty will borrow books they could borrow books as much as they want, there is no limitation. The process of recording the student’s information was done manually by recording on a log book where every student who enters the library needs to fill up the information such as name, section, year level and the date. Same as the book records, the librarian needs to record the book title, author, book number according to its date received and the date to the Accession Book. The record of the books is not arranged properly because it was arranged according to its date received not alphabetically or by subject matter. The system takes a lot of time and endeavor to handle so the librarian must ensure to keep track the records in the library. 1.3 Project Rationale The following will benefit to the proposed System: * Mystical Rose School of Caloocan Inc. The school will be able to experience a Computerized Library System. It can monitor information and the books and records can be settled. The proposed system will record the list of all the books – plus the incoming books, in the library. It will record the students’ information who registered each day. Every time a student wants to borrow a book it will be inputted in the system and record it. It will help the librarian to manage the student’s record as well as the record and information’s of the books. * Student The student will no longer fill up all the information needed in the attendance book every time they enter the library. The transaction of a student will be faster in borrowing and returning of books. * The proponents The Computerized System is also designed for the benefits of the proponents for the compliance of the project in the subject System Analysis and Design and of course it widens their capabilities in creating their target program with the help of planning, researching, designing and developing. They will learn a lot not only in doing the system but also they will experience the real happening in the IT industry. II.PROJECT DESCRIPTION 2.1Problem Statement 2.1.1 Major Statement How will to proponents develop/design a Library System that will help the librarian monitor all the records of the books as well as the student’s information’s? 2.1.2 Minor Statement * How will the proponents create a module that facilitates the security of the system? * How will the proponents create a module that holds the record of books information? * How will the proponents create a module that will hold the record of students and faculties who borrowed books? * How will the proponents create a module that will hold the record of borrowed and returned books? * How will the proponents create a module that will facilitate the availability of the books? 2.2Proposed Research Project 2.2.1 General Objectives * To be able to create a Computerized Library System for Mystical Rose School of Caloocan Inc. 2.2.2 Specific Objectives * To be able to create a module that facilitates the security of the system? * To be able to create a module that holds the record of books information? * To be able to create a module that will hold the record of students and faculties who borrowed books? * To be able to create a module that will hold the record of borrowed and returned books? * To be able to create a module that will facilitate the availability of the books? 2.2.3 Scope and Limitations Scope * Student Information * It can add, edit and delete the important information of a student. Like name, address, guardian and contact number. * Faculty Information * Faculty can also borrow books. * Transaction of Books * Borrowing Books * Returning Book * User Accounts * Librarian * Aid Limitations * The system is not going to use a barcode reader. * It is not capable in computing penalties. 2.2.4 Methodology DATABASE NORMALIZATION * The proponents use this method to organize the fields and tables of the database to minimize data redundancy and dependency. It helps create a much more flexible database design and it can handle better database security. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE * This serves as guidelines to the proponents because it provides a sequence of activities for the system. In order to create a proposed program, the proponents used this system to identify and to serve as the proponents’ guidelines and patterns in building a Library System for Mystical Rose School of Caloocan Inc. Planning, Analysis, Design, Implementation, Maintenance Planning – The proponents managed different task by dividing the members of the group which each member have their own task to do. Analysis – After concluding the interview, we found out that the company is using a manual system. By creating a Computerized Library System, handling the list of books and students, monitoring, and transactions would be easier and time saving. The proponents gathered required information’s needed for the system. Design – The design of the system is based on the information being gathered by the proponents. For the system is properly designed, the codes are easily generated. III. Project Management 3.1 Calendar of Activities 3.1.1 Description of Activities * Week 1 The proponents passed the proposal letter to the Mystical Rose School of Caloocan Inc., and it was approved by Mr. Mark Gregore, OIC of the school on the other day. * Week 2 The proponents conducted an interview to the librarian and started to make the chapter 1 of the documentation. * Week 3 The proponents started to make the chapter 2 of their documentation. And about 30% of the back-end of the system was made. * Week 4 The proponents finished the design of their system. * Week 5 The proponents finish the chapter 4 of their documentation. The proponents make the 50% of their system. * Week 6 The proponents finished the 75% of their system and make some revision on the documentation. * Week 7 The proponents finished their system as well as the documentation. 3.1.1 GANTT Chart of Activities 3.2Resources 3.2.1 Hardware * Computer Set * Netbook * Laptop 3.2.2 Software * Microsoft Office 2007 * Visual Basic 6.0 SP6 * Windows XP * Windows 7 IV. APPENDIX 4.1 References Google * www.Google.com Sourcecode * www.Sourcecodester.com 4.2 Resource Person/s * Prof. Harold Ramirez Lucero Professor/Dean College of Information Technology Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. Email: Harold.lucero@yahoo.com Contact No.: 09233033855 * Prof. Carlo Dino Santos Professor College of Information Technology Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. 4.3 Personal Technical Vitae Trixia Marie C. Albelda No. 69 Marcos Rd, Freedom Park 6, Brgy Batasan Hills, Quezon City Mobile: 09077045988 Email: albeldatrixia@yahoo.com EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: Course Presently Enrolled In: Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Tertiary: Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. No. 6 Kingfisher St., Corner Skylark St., Zabarte Subd., Novaliches, Q.C. Secondary:Batasan Hills National High School IBP Rd., Batasan Hills, Quezon City 2006-2010 Primary:Merry Mount Preparatory School No. 96 Ilang-ilang St., Payatas A, Quezon City 2000-2006 PERSONAL BACKGROUND: Age:18 Sex:Female Birth Date:May 28, 1994 Height:5’5 Weight:110 lbs. Civil Status:Single Citizenship:Filipino Language:Filipino and English WORK EXPERIENCE On The Job Training Teletech Novaliches June 1 – August 30 SEMINAR ATTENDED: Leadership Training Program CWTS – NSTP Feb. 12 – 13, 2011 CHARACTER REFFERENCE: Mr. Rechor Quijano Business Communication Specialist Teletech Novaliches Mobile: 09328925781 Mr. Harold Lucero, MIT Dean, Information Technology Department Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Mobile: 09233689633 Mrs. Cila B. Madrid Directress, CBM Tutorial Center Nieves St., Batasan Hills, Quezon City Mobile: 09205065922 I hereby certify that the above information is true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. ____________________________ Applicant’s Signature Lorraine D. Drilon 3630 Heavenly Drive San Agustin Novaliches, Quezon City Mobile: 09306610648 Email: Lorraine_sus05@yahoo.com EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: Course Presently Enrolled In: Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Tertiary: Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. No. 6 Kingfisher St., Corner Skylark St., Zabarte Subd., Novaliches, Q.C. Secondary:Novaliches High School TS Cruz Subdivision, San Agustin Novaliches, Quezon City Primary:San Agustin Elementary School Heavenly Drive San Agustin Novaliches, Quezon City 2000-2006 PERSONAL BACKGROUND: Age:19 Sex:Female Birth Date:October 5, 1993 Height:5’3 Weight:108 lbs. Civil Status:Single Citizenship:Filipino Language:Filipino and English WORK EXPERIENCE Service Crew-Cashier Jollibee SM Nolvaliches November 5, 2011 – Present SEMINAR ATTENDED: Leadership Training Program CWTS – NSTP Feb. 12 – 13, 2011 CHARACTER REFFERENCE: Mrs. Aurora â€Å"Thet† Nolasco Assistant Restaurant Manager Jollibee SM Novaliches Mobile: 442-60-16 Mr. Harold Lucero, MIT Dean, Information Technology Department Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Mobile: 09233689633 I hereby certify that the above information is true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. ____________________________ Applicant’s Signature Gernalin J. Iglesia 7198 Sto. Nino St. Maligaya Park Subd. Caloocan City Mobile: 09126792363 Email: gernz_08@yahoo.com EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: Course Presently Enrolled In: Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Tertiary: Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. No. 6 Kingfisher St., Corner Skylark St., Zabarte Subd., Novaliches, Q.C. University of St. La Salle Bacolod Corner La Salle Street Bacolod City, Negros Occidental 2008-2009 Secondary:Dona Monsterrat Lopez Memorial High School Rizal St. Silay City, Negros Occidental 2004-2008 Primary:Adela Elementary School Sitio Adela Silay City, Negros Occidental 1998-2004 PERSONAL BACKGROUND: Age:21 Sex:Female Birth Date:August 11, 1991 Height:5’2 Weight:110 lbs. Civil Status:Single Citizenship:Filipino Language:Filipino, Hiligaynon and English WORK EXPERIENCE On The Job Training VS & F Frontline Services Inc. April 10-May 2, 2012 SEMINAR ATTENDED: Leadership Training Program CWTS – NSTP Feb. 12 – 13, 2011 CHARACTER REFFERENCE: Ms. Annie L. Salvador Manager, Accounting Department VS&F Frontline Services Inc. Mobile: 9374980 Mr. Harold Lucero, MIT Dean, Information Technology Department Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Mobile: 09233689633 I hereby certify that the above information is true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. ____________________________ Applicant’s Signature Sarah Jane I. Jacob J, Zuniga Cmpd, Mahogany St., Silanganan Subd., Caloocan City Mobile: 09104802694 Email: jengfots@yahoo.com EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: Course Presently Enrolled In: Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Tertiary: Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. #6 Kingfisher St., Corner Skylark St., Zabarte Subd., Novaliches, Q.C. Secondary:Novaliches High School T.S Cruz, Novaliches, Quezon City 2006-2010 Primary:Damong Maliit Elementary School San Antonio Subd., Novaliches, Quezon City 2000-2006 PERSONAL BACKGROUND: Age:18 Sex:Female Birth Date:December 23, 1993 Height:5’4 Weight:100 lbs. Civil Status:Single Citizenship:Filipino Language:Filipino and English WORK EXPERIENCE On The Job Training Land Registration Authorization May 14 – June 10 SEMINAR ATTENDED: Leadership Training Program CWTS – NSTP Feb. 12 – 13, 2011 CHARACTER REFFERENCE: Mrs. Imelda Teneza General Secretarial Land Registration Authorization Mr. Harold Lucero, MIT Dean, Information Technology Department Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Mobile: 09233689633 I hereby certify that the above information is true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. ____________________________ Applicant’s Signature Daryl S. Llagas 379 camia St. malaria Rd. Caloocan City Mobile: 09169261853 Email: daryl.llagas08@gmail.com . EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: Course Presently Enrolled In: Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Tertiary: Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. No. 6 Kingfisher St., Corner Skylark St., Zabarte Subd., Novaliches, Q.C. Secondary:Manuel luis Quezon High School. Malaria Caloocan City 2006-2010 Primary:Tabe Elementary School. Tabe Guiguinto Bulacan 2000-2006 PERSONAL BACKGROUND: Age:18 Sex:Male Birth Date:February 8, 1994 Height:5’7 Weight:140 lbs. Civil Status:Single Citizenship:Filipino Language:Filipino and English WORK EXPERIENCE On The Job Training Teletech Novaliches June 1 – August 30 SEMINAR ATTENDED: Leadership Training Program CWTS – NSTP Feb. 12 – 13, 2011 CHARACTER REFFERENCE: Mr. Rechor Quijano Business Communication Specialist Teletech Novaliches Mobile: 09328925781 Mr. Harold Lucero, MIT Dean, Information Technology Department Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Mobile: 09233689633 I hereby certify that the above information is true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. ____________________________ Applicant’s Signature Zedrick Adrian C. Salunga Blk 15 Lot 13 Tulip Street Palmera Phase 1, Camarin, Caloocan City Mobile: 09303401304 Email: salunga.zedrick@gmail.com EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT: Course Presently Enrolled In: Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Tertiary: Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Foundation Inc. No. 6 Kingfisher St., Corner Skylark St., Zabarte Subd., Novaliches, Q.C. Secondary:Mystical Rose School of Caloocan Inc. Ilang-Ilang Street, Almar Subdivision, Camarin, Caloocan City 2006-2010 Primary:Union Village Christian Academy Palmera Springs Phase V, Camarin, Caloocan City 2000-2006 PERSONAL BACKGROUND: Age:18 Sex:Male Birth Date:July 10, 1994 Height:5’2 Weight:98 lbs. Civil Status:Single Citizenship:Filipino Language:Filipino and English WORK EXPERIENCE On The Job Training Teletech Novaliches June 1 – August 30 SEMINAR ATTENDED: Leadership Training Program CWTS – NSTP Feb. 12 – 13, 2011 CHARACTER REFFERENCE: Mr. Rechor Quijano Business Communication Specialist Teletech Novaliches Mobile: 09328925781 Mr. Harold Lucero, MIT Dean, Information Technology Department Colegio de Sta. Teresa de Avila Mobile: 09233689633 I hereby certify that the above information is true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. ____________________________ Applicant’s Signature

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Camp administrators were so sympathetic to the thousands of Japanese Americans in this camp that they were lenient in giving them access to Phoenix and recreational activities in the surrounding areas, which was very rare. Gila River was a showplace compared to the other camps, with rougher conditions. Eleanor Roosevelt made a surprise visit in 1943 to look into allegations of special treatment to the evacuees. Heart Mountain Relocation Center Opening on August 12th, 1942; the Heart Mountain Internment in Wyoming held up to 10,767 evacuees at any point. Unlike the climate that the mostly Southern Californian Japanese-Americans were not used to the cold climate, which resulted in lots of illness and an overcrowding hospital. Dissimilar to the Gila River Relocation Camp with one watchtower, the Heart Mountain Camp had nine watchtowers with military police and searchlights. Within the camp, ran a garment factory, the produced silk would usually be made into posters for the navy and other camps. In early 1945 evacuees were allowed to return back to the West Coast with $25 and a train ticket, but by June 1945 only 2,000 people had left, It wasn’t until November 10, 1945 when the last trainload of evacuees left Heart Mountain. Jerome Internment Camp At its peak containing 8,497 Japanese Americans, Jerome Internment Camp was the shortest lasting relocation camp, only being open 634 days from October 6th, 1942 and closing June 30th, 1944. This camp in particular was very hard for the West Coast evacuees to adjust to due to rain which resulted in mud, humidity which caused mosquitos to flourish and spread malaria, there were also surrounded with snakes which contained some of the deadliest snakes in America. Jerome was also the only site to report shooting by civilians, which had happened several times at this camp. The first of the ten relocation camps to close, the Jerome Internment Camp was later used as a German POW camp until the end of the war and the remaining evacuees were sent to the Rohwer Relocation Center 30 miles away. Manzanar Relocation Center Located 5 miles south of independence California, Manzanar Relocation Center was open from March 21st, 1942 to November 21st, 1945. To help the war effort many worked at Manzanar’s camouflage netting factory, and others joined the army. The conditions of this camp were very similar to the others with no heating or furniture. Manzanar included an orphanage known as Children’s Village, for the Japanese American orphans half of who lived in Caucasian foster homes. On December 6th, 1942, the most serious of civil disturbances occurred in Manzanar, a man was charged for beating another man in his sleep and sent to jail. After this incident 1,000’s of evacuees protested for him to be released, Center director brought back the man to the camp jail, but this still angered the protesters. Administrators called for more military police because the protestors were now arming themselves with any weapons they could find. While the protestors kept pushing soldiers fired into the crowd and killed two people, and wounded 10 others. By December 1946 the camp was completely dismantled, except for several buildings. Minidoka Relocation Center The Minidoka Relocation Center opened up on August 10th, 1942 and closed on October 28th, 1945 and reached a peak population of 9,397 most of these people being from the Pacific Northwest. Unlike many of the camps, the evacuees got along with the administrators and security was somewhat lighter than other camps. But they also had their hardships, such as blinding dust storms that would cause regular sore throats and nose bleeds, and 8-9 people lived in a single room apartment. Minidoka functioned like a regular town with its own schools, block managers, hospitals, newspapers, library, and activities. Agriculture was very important in this camp with 350 acres being cleared and farmed in 1942 and 740 acres by 1944. Now it’s mainly farmland where the camp used to stand. Poston Relocation Center Located about 12 miles south of Parker Arizona, the Poston internment camp opened on May 8th, 1942 and closed November 28th, 1945, with a peak of 17,814 people from Southern California. Poston was a 71,000 acre camp and was the hottest of the 10 camps, summers would swelter at 115 degrees. The center was split into three camps Poston I, Poston II, and Poston III. The food at this camp was â€Å"inedible† to most people and they had to raise their own chickens, and fruits and vegetables to eat. Evacuees could work within and outside the camp, inside they could earn $12 to $19 a month. By fall of 1942 conditions got worse on the camp, there were food shortages, heating stoves still had yet to be installed, yet to get promised clothing and allowances. In November of 1942 a man who the people suspected to be an informer to the administration was beat and officials arrested two men who were believed to have committed the crime. When they were tried in Arizona Courthouse protesters gathered, and were later settled by freeing one of the suspects, and having the other ones trial within the camp. There is now a monument that stands where the camp used to. Rohwer Relocation Center Located 5 miles west of the Mississippi River and 30 miles south of Jerome Relocation Center, this swampy camp opened on September 18th, 1942 and closed on November 30th, 1945 with holding up to 8,475 people at one point. Farming in this camp and outside the fences was very difficult due to irregular weather, but they still managed to cultivate 85% of their vegetables. Evacuees built drainage ditches and wooden sidewalks around each block because of all of the muddy conditions. Now the land holds 24 graves, two monuments built by the evacuees, one for the Japanese Americans in the 100th battalion and the 422nd Regimental Combat Team, and the other for the 24 Japanese Americans who died at the camp. There were two newer monuments put up in 1982 for the 31 men that died in the 100th battalion and the 422nd Regimental Combat Team, and the other for the relocation center. Topaz Relocation Center Also known as the Central Utah Relocation Center then the Abraham Relocation Center, the Topaz Relocation Center was located 16 west of Delta and opened on September 11th, 1945 and close on October 31st, 1945 with a peak population of 8,130 people. Described as a â€Å"barren, sand-choked wasteland† the average summer temperatures were in the 90s. Even though evacuees had the occasional frustration flares, it was overall quite a peaceful camp. The biggest of these flares was when a guard said he had seen an Issei names James Hatsuaki Wakasa trying to escape, and had warned him, but James did not understand what he was saying, and the guard shot him. James autopsy later revealed that James was shot in the chest, so he would have had to have been facing the guard at the time of being shot. The evacuees demanded to hold the deceased funeral at the spot he was shot and that there be an investigation. The guard was found not guilty and they censored this news from the camps to avoid further strikes and rioting. Life settled down and the evacuees continues in their day to day lives with cultivating gardens, school, recreational activities, and poor living conditions such as when it snowed in October and there were still no windows on the barracks. No buildings are left on the land, but in 1976 the Japanese American Citizen League erected a large monument, and there is another monument in nearby town of Delta with directions to the camp. Tule Lake Relocation Center As the largest and most controversial relocation camp the Tule Lake Relocation center opened on May 27th, 1942 with a peak of 19,789 people mostly from northern California, Washington, and Oregon. Tule Lake was also the only camp to become high security because most of the people answered a questionnaire and answered no to â€Å"Are you willing to server in the armed forces of the United States on combat duty, wherever ordered?† and no to â€Å"Will you swear unqualified allegiance to the United States and faithfully defend the United States from any or all attack by foreign or domestic forces, and forswear any form of allegiance or obedience to the Japanese emperor, or any other foreign government, power, or organization?†, this showed disloyalty, and they were condemned as trouble makers. Martial Law was imposed in this camp until January 15th, 1944 after Army poised to take over because evacuees were rioting for food because there were shortages. Tule Lake was not on ly the largest and most controversial internment camp, it was also the last to close on March 28th, 1946.

Risk Management Plan For A Bakery Business Management Essay

Risk Management Plan For A Bakery Business Management Essay After Graduation I want to pursue my career as a Bakery Business Entrepreneur. Food is one of the basic essentials of life therefore a proper industrial bakery channel is likely to yield high profits. The business has great potential for expansion as by starting off with a small industry I can make retail and wholesale stores. How dubious the economic situation may be this business generally keeps on moving if quality standards are maintained. My bakery will offer all sorts of breads, muffins, pastries, cakes etc. with special attention for catering to the needs of gluten allergy sufferers. Before starting my own business Ill survey present bakeries operating in the country, analyze the success rate of the most valued existing franchises and then hire professional bakers on the basis of merit. Risk Management Plan: A successful risk management initiative should be proportionate to the level of risk in the organization (as related to the size, nature and complexity of the organization), aligned with other corporate activities, comprehensive in its scope, embedded into routine activities and dynamic by being responsive to changing circumstances (IRM, 2010). Following is the brief description of risk management plan that Ill adopt once my business swings into action. My plan will begin with the process of risk assessment that aims to make employers more apt for taking the right action in terms of improving workplace production, safety, health, etc. therefore let us discuss the major risks associated with the development of a baking industry. Property Risks that could arise from ownership or renting: Normally all entrepreneurs suffer three kinds of losses: the property loss which could be direct or indirect, the liability loss and income loss concerned with employees unforeseen predicaments. Direct property loss may occur due to calamities like fire, thunderstorm, theft etc. In bakeries equipment and surroundings is often at risk of catching fire. In case of catastrophe, specialized waste management firms might be contacted to clear the debris and the firm would have to continue daily activities in a temporary accommodation. Companys statistical records would be saved elsewhere to avoid major losses. Indirect property losses may result in renovation of the damaged property e.g. the factory in baked items are made, paying transport vans rentals after the vehicle was stolen etc. In order to avoid such issues my businesss property would be properly insured so that any loss from unforeseen events could be compensated. An insurance agent will provide checklists to help identify total property loss. All information regarding site ownership and purchased price documents would be kept handy (Dorfman, 1998, p. 68). Liability Risks: Liability insurance is one of the most important steps while launching a business that is often overlooked. Product liability occurs when a firms products allegedly injure the public. Environmental impairment liability arises from violating federal or state statutes designed to protect the environment, or from lawsuits from parties claiming injury caused by a firms improper handling of toxic substances(Dorfman, 1998, p.51). As the chief owner my business will include employers liability, public liability, stock, building, vans and money insurance. Product liability and other quality related issues will require the services of an attorney to make sure that the procedures are standardized, this will surely put up extra cost but it is worth all the effort as a little mistake is likely to destabilize business. Proper insurance of the bakery business is essential. To get my bakery franchise legalized, Ill have to abide by government regulations like obtaining a bakery license regulated by the state. E.g. In California Bakery Licences are issued by the Department of Alcoholic Beverages. In order to avoid any risks Ill obtain a business license LLC and a Tax i.d. number. A Foot Handler permit would be needed by employees of the bakery. Another essential step is the hygiene factor. From raw material till the transportation of bakery items special care is needed. For food safety management, government has launched specific standards like the Food Legislation (Local and EU legislation), GMP that stands for Good Manufacturing Practices, Good Hygiene Practices (GHP). The quality of bakery items should be in accordance with the Quality management international system like the ISO 9001, ISO 22000, BRC and others (Ehavald, 2009). Auto Risks: Auto insurance compensates the financial losses if the vehicle undergoes an accident while in business use e.g. while transporting of bakery products. My bakery business would be auto risk insured before hand. Insurance company will provide property, medical and liability finance in case of auto risk occurrence. Property financing would be given in case the transport vehicle is stolen by theft. Liability coverage compensates the damage done to others as a legal responsibility. Medical expenses will be paid for the funeral, lost salary or injury treatments of employees who suffered in the accident. The agreement with the insurance company includes specified regular payments made by the employer (Dorfman, 1998, p.272). OSHA concerns: OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Act) is a federal law brought into action in 1970. Its main aim was to ensure a safe working environment for the employees. OSHA creates two duties for employers. One is to remove all recognized hazards from the work environment. The second is to comply with the standards for a safe working environment as published in the Bulletin from The Department of Labor(Dorfman, 1998, p.272). OSHA inspectors take on-site reviews and in case of violation heavy fines are charged to the employer. In order to manage this risk my business manager will keep a detailed record of any occupational hazards that resulted in severe injury or death of an employ. Lessons will be learnt to avoid future incidents. For new workers training will be provided for using potential risk equipment with care like sharp knives and electrical machinery. Harassment Issues: Harassment encompasses hostile work environment or sexual harassment. US Department of Labor revealed that over 16,000 cases of harassment are reported each year. Claims can be created by men, women, co-workers, managers, customers, owners, vendors and others(Dorfman, 1998, p.126). My business will be an equal opportunity for both genders. Any kind of harassment reported to the authorities would be dealt with severe penalties for future concerns. In every department whether its sales or production, women will be allowed to work on the basis of merit. Age Discrimination: The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) protects certain applicants and employees 40 years of age and older from discrimination on the basis of age in hiring, promotion, discharge, compensation, or terms, conditions or privileges of employment. The ADEA is enforced by the  Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) (Solis, Hilda L, 2010). Civil Rights Act of 1964  prohibits discrimination in hiring, promotion, discharge, pay, fringe benefits, job training, classification, referral, and other aspects of employment, on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. This law is also implemented by the  Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) (Solis, Hilda L, 2010). Keeping in view the existing laws, retirement age in my business firm would be sixty. Young skilled employees will be welcomed to join the team. Discrimination due to disability: Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits employers of 15 or more workers, employment agencies, and labor organizations of 15 or more workers from discriminating against qualified individuals with disabilities (Solis, Hilda L, 2010). Group Disability Income Insurance: Compensation is to be granted if an employee is disabled by a work related accident. Although workers compensation benefits are rarely adequate, they do ensure economic security for the workers family (Dorfman, 1998, p.501). Long term disability benefits will be insured and remain applicable until a specified age of 60. As Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits state and local governments from discriminating against qualified individuals with disabilities in programs, activities, and services therefore employees with mobility or speech impairments could be adjusted in dealing with the technological affairs like managing websites or dealing with the customers on telephone. The report on European Agency for safety at work states that the physical working environment should suit the employees with disabilities. In addition to the above mentioned OSH Legislations my working conditions would take into account that flooring, stairways should be slip resistant. Ergonomic Principles will be kept in mind while designing the business firm (Amelie Buffet Marie Priha Eero, 2009, p.24). Employer/Employee Issue: Keeping in mind the importance of human capital, my business will involve a well organized workforce. Suggestions would be accepted from the workers regarding quality improvement and managing teamwork. All employees must be trained yearly. Work shops or seminars would be arranged from time to time to keep the bakery updated with the latest technology for baking. Benefits for the Personnel: The personnel policies of the firm would be made keeping in mind the state laws governing in the present scenario. Health insurance would be provided to all workers as part of the employee benefit plan. A baker working by the hour can make anywhere from $8 to $14 per hour on average with an annual salary ranging from $15,000 to $20,000 each year. A baker can require higher pay depending on education, experience and geographical location (Ehavald, 2009). Before my bakery will set into operation, Ill be having six months period of operating costs setback. During that time due to sudden immense expenditure being spent on security deposits and construction, advertising, permits and licenses as well as startup inventory I might not be able to give extra facilities to my employees but after that trial period, once the business is off and running, all remuneration issues will be finalized to keep my employees motivated. How to handle personal issues: Employment practices liability describes the loss potential arising from lawsuits from employees alleging wrongful hiring, promotion, demotion, termination and sexual harassment (Dorfman, 1998, p.51). Hiring an Employee: My business firm will gather in advance as much information about the applicants as possible in order to reduce the risk of negligent hiring. Federal and state anti discrimination laws will be kept in mind during the hiring process. After selecting an employee through proper channel of employment applications he would be assigned work tasks within the firm. Terminating an Employee: It may happen that the selected employee does not come up to the companys expectations. Liabilities involved in terminating an employee might mean invading the companys privacy, reputational risks are also involved. Therefore performance appraisals during job hours and an exit evaluation form offered by the firm would answer the reason for termination of the employee that would be in accordance to the current state laws to avoid any hindrance in the business flow (Amelie Buffet Marie Priha Eero, 2009). Dealing with Fraud: The firm will have a clear contingency plan for fraud. The responsible employee would be held accountable to compensate his misconduct or in severe case he might even be expelled from the job (Sadgrove, 2005, p.266). External reporting to stake holders: External reporting should provide useful information to stakeholders on the status of risk management and the actions that are being taken to ensure continuous improvement in performance. Firms need to report to its stakeholders on a regular basis, setting out its risk management policies and the effectiveness in achieving its objectives. Increasingly, stakeholders look to organisations to provide evidence of appropriate corporate behaviour in such areas as community affairs, human rights, employment practices, health and safety, and the environment(IRM, 2010). Identifying the risks factors beforehand will help to prevent crisis. The business firm will develop polices to handle risk situations and managers will be appointed in each department to monitor the major risk areas. Quality would be a major detriment in the success of my firm. I hope that once this risk management plan is activated risk losses will reduce to a minimum and profitability is forecasted to occur within a couple of months. Work cited: Amelie Buffet Marie Priha Eero(2009) Workforce Diversity and Risk Assessment: Ensuring everyone is covered. Retrieved at: http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/TE7809894ENC Dorfman Mark S(1998).Introduction to Risk Management and Insurance 6th Edition. Prentice Hall. Ehavald Helen (2009) Food Safety Risk Management In Bakeries. 3rd SaFoodnet seminar. Retrieved at: http://newananas.vtt.fi/virtual/safoodnet/tallinn/15ehavald.pdf. Sadgrove Kit (2005) The complete guide to business risk management 2nd edition. Gower Publishing.Ltd. Solis Hilda L (2010).United States Department of Labour. Retrieved at: http://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/discrimination/agedisc.htm. A structured approach to enterprise risk management (ERM) and the requirements of ISO 31000 (2010). Retrieved at: http://www.theirm.org/documents/SARM_FINAL.pdf. How to start a bakery business. Insights to getting started (2010). Retrieved at: http://www.atouchofbusiness.com/tips/ideas/BakeryBusiness-0015.html

Local Involvement :: Development, Farmers

One main issue about local involvement is how to integrate participatory principles in the present dominant top-down hierarchical extension system in developing countries. In the study about participatory extension approach in Vietnam, Minh et al. (2000) examine the potential and challenges to scale up several new participatory principles (participatory-based training methods, interactive training sessions, group-based sharing experience, practical learning, and learning-by-doing process) in the existing supply-driven extension system. They found that by the help of external support, the approach has been proved to be successful to be applied in farmer level. In order to institutionalize this approach, they recommend using a stepwise procedure, in which it must be initiated by identifying the core problems of the existing extension system and the capacities and then gradually introducing the innovations rather than giving them on the whole. Other issue about local involvement is how to integrate farmers’ innovation into wider existing formal institutional system. Tchawa et al. (2002) assess the Participatory Technology Development in Cameroon, in which they institute that such an innovation may be effectively adopted by the various social actors involved in it, even though it requires difficult learning process difficult at the beginning of the implementation. Taking the case of soil and water conservation, this participatory approach integrating indigenous practices and modern agricultural innovations using the techniques of informal and formal learning (pp. 206-211) However, one study showed that collaboration that involving farmers must be accomplished carefully because of the possibility of social bias. The study of collaborative research-extension plans conducted in Iran indicate that the joint plans, although able to promote collaboration between extension workers and researchers, and extension workers and farmers, the results of this study indicate that such a cooperation plan may be more adaptive to larger-scale farmer segments than the smaller ones. (Movahedi et al., 2007). (pp.304-309Â ¬) Other social segment that should be considered is the young farmers. Auta et al. (2010), in the study of Nigerian youth farmers, argue that the youth needs agricultural trainings as well as more access to agricultural inputs and services to enable them participate in agricultural activities continuously, particularly under scarcity of food availability. Other focal extension issue in developing countries is about partnership among agricultural actors. In the study of cost-sharing scheme, as part of relationship reform between government and farmers extension service, Ozor et al., 2007) found that both farmers and extension workers hold positive perceptions regarding this new partnership scheme; 80.

We Must Fight for Internet Freedom Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive T

We Must Fight for Internet Freedom Have you ever wished you could be a part of a movement that would change the world? To be part of a movement that made a positive difference on the world as a whole. I wanted to be that guy pounding a sledgehammer on the Berlin Wall, or the man blocking the path of the tank coming down the street in Tiananmen Square. These were symbols of brave people trying to make changes to the world in which they live. Here we had ordinary people caught up in a movement for Human Rights and were immortalized because of freedoms and rights we cherish. Through the freedom of the press and use of the Internet we can talk to people who were there. We can learn who, what, and why things are happening. Now that voice is being stifled. The Internet and Human Rights, two distinctive and separate things tied together by common thread of freedom is being smothered or controlled. Freedom of speech, Freedom of expression and Freedom of the press are under restraints. These are the same rights that our forefathers fought so hard to make part of our daily lives. We assume that other countries have similar rights. The Internet is being controlled by repressive regimes under the guise they are preventing their people from being exposed to bad influences. Governments are controlling the type of information by allowing only registered sites. The Internet Police are monitoring E-mail, when the citizens use the Internet to show how their governments are abusing basic Human Rights they are arrested. Repressive regimes are afraid; if the people they control should find out how the rest of the world enjoys freedom, they would not be in power for long. For instance, citizens in Turkey, Malaysia, ... ...ill be made. As the title stated, "You Were There," we all watched the news and waited to see what happened next in Berlin or China. People should not stand by and later wish they had taken part in this movement. People should unite and prevent governments from putting limits on our imaginations or our use of the Internet to express ourselves. We can be a part of a movement to keep the Internet unrestricted. Having a forum for all can really bring the world closer and unified in a common cause that all people have rights as humans. By joining groups like the H.R.W and the G.I.L.C. you can be made aware of what can be done to protect your rights and others. If people were allowed to communicate freely and unafraid of retribution, they would create a change no less that those men who knocked down the Berlin Wall, or stood as a roadblock to a tank.

French and Russian Revolutions :: European Europe History

French and Russian Revolutions Both the French and Russian revolutions occurred because of two main reasons. Both of these revolutions were the direct results of bad leadership and a bad economy. These two reasons along with other factors caused both of these revolutions. Although they were both similar, they also had differences. A difference between the two is that the Russians had an unsuccessful "pre-revolution" in 1905. Another difference between these two revolutions is the fact that the French turned towards a democracy while the Russian government became communist. In 1905 , Russia had a prerevolution that was put down of the Czar. Instead of learning from this prerevolution, Czar Nicholas II, made a very big mistake by in not introducing some reforms to correct the problems. So because of his actions, the situation grew worse. In 1917, the Russians were fighting in World War I. A good majority of the Russian people were weary and uncontent with the way the war was going and with the Czar's rule. This uncontent along with economic hardships caused riots and demonstrations to break out. The Czar called for the army to put down the revolution as they did in 1905. But the army joined the revolt and the Czar was kicked out of power soon afterwards. A temporary government was set up to decide on what kind of government Russia was gonna set up. Two political parties were set up. The Bolsheviks were one of the two. The leader of the Bolshevik party was a man named Lenin. Lenin was a firm believer of the theories and ideas of Karl Marx. So with his slo gan of "Bread, Peace and Land", Lenin gained the support of the peasants and gained control of Russia and setup a communist state. The French revolution was also caused by a bad ruler and a bad economy. During the early 1780's a big percent of annual budget went towards king Louis XVI's lavish estate at Versailles. France also had no central bank, no paper currency, no ways of getting more money, and an out-dated tax system which only taxed the poor who had no money to begin with. Signs of revolution first appeared when the peasants stormed the fortress known as the Bastille looking for gun powder. The Bastille incident set off revolts all over France and Louis was soon deposed afterwards.A democratic goverment was setup in place of the old monarcy.

The Industrial Uses of Gold and Silver

The Industrial Uses of Gold and Silver Metals such as gold and silver have been considered precious throughout history for their rarity and aesthetic appeal. These elements are important in modern industry as technological advances expand the applications and uses of their unique physical properties. The uses of these two metals are found in almost every field of interest. From medical to aerospace technology, the applications of these substances provide another reason for their desirability. The evolution of technology has increased its demand for gold’s physical properties.One of the key differences between gold and silver is its resistance to tarnishing. Even though silver and copper are better conductors, gold’s defiance against environmental effects makes it a perfect for electronics where consistent performance over time is desired. Melting other metals with gold forms a gold-based alloy which is extremely heat resistant but can still act as a conductor. These all oys are then used in electronics that operate under intensely high temperatures, such as toasters (World Gold Council, 2012). One significant area where gold is consumed for its reliability is the military.The military uses gold in the form of connectors where the reliability of its electronics is an important factor because using gold connectors can mean the difference between life and death. This is why every tank, helicopter, fight jet, and other military hardware has gold in some form or another. The medical field has also recognized the gold’s reliable characteristics. Most, if not all of the life support electronics are plated with gold as its conductor. One medical application of gold that is not related to electronics is the treatment of a condition called Lagophthalmos.A person with this condition has the inability to fully close their eyes. By implanting tiny amounts of gold in the upper eyelid, the extra weight allows them to completely close their eyes. Gold is us ed because it has excellent biocompatibility unlike many other metals which have a toxicity level harmful to humans (Goodman, 2002). Gold is not the only metal with medical applications. Silver has valuable anti-bacterial characteristics and unlike other metals with anti-microbial properties, it is not harmful to humans (Daima, 2011 pg. 1).Before antibiotics were invented, silver was been used as a weapon against diseases during World War I. One of the best features about silver is the fact that bacteria cannot adapt to it like they do with antibiotics. Today, silver is added to medical instruments such as bandages and scalpels. Some hospitals have even gone to the extent of coating door knobs, flooring, and files with silver to create a more sanitary environment. Silver was also recently proven to promote the growth of new cells, making wounds heal faster (The Silver Institute, 2012).Even though it is not as corrosion-resistant as gold, it is highly valued in the electronics indust ry as super conductor. This means silver-based batteries are also super capacitors, lasting much longer than other batteries. Another unique property that silver has is its ability to reflect heat and radiation. Many of today’s office buildings have silver coated windows. This application of silver reflects up to 95% of the Sun’s rays, reducing the cost of cooling during hot summer days (The Silver Institute, 2012).

Environmental Degration

One of the major threat the planet faces today, environmental degradation is bound to make life difficult for all the lifeforms, including us humans, sooner or later. Studies reveal that the deterioration of environment is occurring at an alarming rate. In fact, the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations has enlisted it as one of the ten threats for humans. This issue shares space with problems like poverty, terrorism and civil war in the list, and this itself highlights the fact that we are heading for a certain disaster. What is Environmental Degradation?It is a process wherein the natural environment of the planet is degenerated to such an extent that the biodiversity and the general health of the planet is subjected to drastic reduction. In other words, this phenomenon can be defined as deterioration of the Earth's natural surroundings as a result of excessive exploitation of the available resources – these include water, air, flora, fauna, soil etc. The life on the planet is interwoven to such an extent that a decrease in a particular attribute triggers a domino effect on all the other attributes dependent on it.How is it Caused? ’; Environmental degradation can be attributed to various human activities and some natural processes, with the later having an insignificant share in the same. Most of the resources on the planet are vulnerable to depletion, and the rate at which we are exploiting them have already brought some of them to the brink of exhaustion. Exploitation of the fossil fuels is the best example of this phenomenon. Large-scale exploitation has depleted the fossil fuel reserves across the world, thus leaving us with no option but to find an alternate source of energy.Other human activities which have been contributing to this environmental issue include urbanization, overpopulation, deforestation, pollution, hunting, etc. What Does it Affect Us? Its effects are becoming more and more obvious in form of all those environment al issues affecting the planet. The hazardous waste let out by the industries tends to contaminate the water bodies in the vicinity, thus leaving the water unfit for drinking.Similarly, greenhouse gases, such as CFCs and carbon dioxide, let out in the atmosphere have a devastating effect on the environment, thus making the planet vulnerable to a range of problems, including global warming and climate change. On one hand, incessant agricultural activities have resulted in degradation of soil, while excessive deforestation to accumulate the growing population has resulted in degradation of air and water on the other hand. Humans have seldom sacrificed their necessities, but lately exploitation of resources to fulfill these necessities itself is taking a toll on the environment.How Can we Deal With it? At one point of time, the damage reaches a stage wherein the environment can't attain the required balance on its own. In such a situation, we humans need to step in, and ensure that the damage is curbed and balance is attained. Simple measures, such as conservation of electricity, use of alternative energy sources, avoiding the use of things that pollute the environment, soil conservation, etc. , can help in saving the environment from the threat of degradation. Environmentalists, the world over, are trying their best to save our environment, and we need to do our bit to make sure that they succeed.The need of the hour is to identify the causes of environmental degradation, and eliminate them one by one. We need to understand the fact that we are a part of the interwoven life system on the planet, and any problems, like environmental degradation and environmental pollution, are bound to affect us directly or indirectly. Though the disaster is not expected to happen tomorrow or a hundred years from now, that doesn't mean it will never happen at all. That being said, the onus is on us – the most intelligent species on the planet, to make sure that such proble ms are kept at bay.The main causes of environmental degradation are as follow; 1 Industrialization 2 Agricultural development 3 population growth 4 poverty 5 urbanization 6 Deforestation 7 transport development 8 market failure Causes of Environmental Degradation There is no doubt that man has caused environmental degradation. The causes of environmental degeneration are complex and should be addressed to, before it causes complete breakdown of the environment.Ads by Google BSc Psychology Online Study In Nigeria – UK Universities. Apply Online Now For Home Study www. rdi. co. k/psychology These are the days we keep hearing about global warming, melting of the glaciers, rising of the sea levels, etc. , all of which have been linked to environmental degradation. When the natural state of the environment is compromised upon it leads to breakdown of the biological diversity and harms the health of the environment. The process of environmental degradation can either be caused by n ature itself or it is man-made (which is a fact). If one has to compare the face of earth as it was hundreds of years ago to what it is today, we will see that environment has severely been compromised upon.When people look at environmental degradation, the intensity of the problem is not actually understood, but it could cause destruction of the human race itself. The causes of this problem vary a lot and it means depletion of the natural resources and disturbances in the natural cycle of things on the face of earth. Root Causes of Environmental Degradation The best case of environmental degradation can be seen in land degradation. There are climatic conditions responsible along with the human activities, which have brought about the degradation.The effects can be seen in the arid, semi arid and dry sub humid lands. One of the cause is over grazing of land. Along with that the green cover has depleted severely in almost all parts of the world. The forest cover has made way for huma n settlement. This has resulted in the temperatures increasing with each passing day. Since the forest covers have depleted, it has resulted in large-scale erosion, which in turn, is responsible for loss of nutrients from the soil. This has led the soil to becoming barren and in some cases also sterile.Since the forest cover has been lost, the winds now blow the top soil from the land, which also leads to degradation of the environment. Pollution is eating away into the environment. Here we are talking about air pollution, where toxic substances have made their way into the air, which has caused the air to become unhealthy. Air pollution is caused by a number of reasons. One of the most prominent cause is vehicle emissions. With each passing day, the number of vehicles are on the rise, which means increase in air pollution. The next cause is release of chemical waste from various factories.The waste often forms a layer in the atmosphere of the earth, which further affects the enviro nment. In environmental degradation we cannot forget the exploitation of fossil fuels. Since the time fossil fuels were discovered, they have been exploited. This has resulted in the fossil fuel reserves depleting all around the world, hence it has become important to find alternate sources of energy. When the fossil fuels are burnt, they release toxins into the air, which further aggravate environmental degradation. The underlying causes of environment going down way is overpopulation.The land reserve that is available on earth is finite. However, the demands are ever-increasing due to increasing population. There is only so much, that one can actually extract from the earth. This has led to widespread use of chemicals and other toxins to produce more food to feed the ever-increasing number of people. This has further caused depletion of the earth. With the use of chemicals the biological balance of earth has also been destroyed as the microorganisms have been killed. If one has to see the environmental degradation causes and effects, one will see that entire ecosystems have been destroyed.The ecosystem is made up of all the living and non living elements. However, when any one of them is destroyed, it leads to the destruction of the entire ecosystem as the balance is lost. No doubt plants and animals form an important feature of the ecosystem, but the microorganisms along with water sources and soil cannot be forgotten either. Industrial waste is known to be hazardous to the environment. The waste can be in the form of liquid waste, which pollute the rivers and cause harm to the ecosystem present in the rivers.It can also be solid waste, which is not biodegradable and pollutes the environment and leads to its degradation. We have already spoken about the industrial waste emitted into the air. After reading about the causes of environmental decadence, we can say that if the human race has to survive on the face of this earth, it is important that stringent me asures be taken up to arrest further deterioration of the environment. One will have to work towards conserving air, water and soil and try to restore balance in the ecosystem, which has been destroyed or is on the verge of destruction.In other words, one will have to work towards restoring natural habitats and make sure no further harm is done to the environment. By Bhakti Satalkar Published: 3/25/2011 * Environmental Degradation * How do Humans Affect the Environment * Current Environmental Issues * List of Environmental Problems * Simple Ways to Save the Environment * How does Mining Affect the Environment * How to Save the Environment * Globalization and Its Impact on the Environment * What are Environmental Ethics?* Environmental Issues List * How to Save Our Environment * Sustainable Living Ideas Causes of Overpopulation * Why are Birds and Fish Dying Read more at Buzzle: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/causes-of-environmental-degradation. html Environmental degradation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Eighty-plus years after the abandonment of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only vegetation at some spots of the site's grounds Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife.It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. [1] Environmental degradation is one of the Ten Threats officially cautioned by the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as â€Å"The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs†. [2] Environmental degradation is of many types.When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degrad ed. | This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help us clarify the article; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2012) | Environmental Change and Human Health, a special section of World Resources 1998-99 in this report describes how preventable illnesses and premature deaths are still occurring in very large numbers. If vast improvements are made in human health, millions of people will be living longer, healthier lives than ever before.In these poorest regions of the world an estimated 11 million children, or about one in five, will not live to see their fifth birthday, primarily because of environment-related diseases. Child mortality is larger than the combined populations of Norway and Switzerland, and mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or diarrhea — illnesses that are largely preventable. Contents [hide] * 1 Water deterioration * 1. 1 Climate change and temperature * 1. 2 Climate change and precipitation * 1. 3 Population g rowth* 1. 4 Agriculture * 1. Water management * 2 See also * 3 References * 4 External links| [edit] Water deterioration One major component of environmental degradation is the depletion of the resource of fresh water on Earth. Approximately only 2. 5% of all of the water on Earth is fresh water, with the rest being salt water. 69% of the fresh water is frozen in ice caps located on Antarctica and Greenland, so only 30% of the 2. 5% of fresh water is available for consumption. [3] Fresh water is an exceptionally important resource, since life on Earth is ultimately dependent on it.Water transports nutrients and chemicals within the biosphere to all forms of life, sustains both plants and animals, and molds the surface of the Earth with transportation and deposition of materials. [4] The current top three uses of fresh water account for 95% of its consumption; approximately 85% is used for irrigation of farmland, golf courses, and parks, 6% is used for domestic purposes such as indoo r bathing uses and outdoor garden and lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial purposes such as processing, washing, and cooling in manufacturing centers. 5] It is estimated that one in three people over the entire globe are already facing water shortages, almost one-fifth of the world’s population live in areas of physical water scarcity, and almost one quarter of the world’s population live in a developing country that lacks the necessary infrastructure to use water from available rivers and aquifers.Water scarcity is an increasing problem due to many foreseen issues in the future, including population growth, increased urbanization, higher standards of living, and climate change. 3] [edit] Climate change and temperature Climate change affects the Earth’s water supply in a large number of ways. It is predicted that the mean global temperature will rise in the coming years due to a number of forces affecting the climate, the amount of atmospheric CO2 will rise, and both of these will influence water resources; evaporation depends strongly on temperature and moisture availability, which can ultimately affect the amount of water available to replenish groundwater supplies.Transpiration from plants can be affected by a rise in atmospheric CO2, which can decrease their use of water, but can also raise their use of water from possible increases of leaf area. Temperature increase can decrease the length of the snow season in the winter and increase the intensity of snowmelt in warmer seasons, leading to peak runoff of snowmelt earlier in the season, affecting soil moisture, flood and drought risks, and storage capacities depending on the area. [6] Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during the summer.This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas inc reasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from glaciers in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller. 3]Thermal expansion of water and increased melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level, which can affect the fresh water supply of coastal areas as well; as river mouths and deltas with higher salinity get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. 5] Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater,[7] as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits,[6] but a global dec rease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for,[7] which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.A rise in air temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is also very significant in water degradation, as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. An increase in water temperature can also affect ecosystems greatly because of a species’ sensitivity to temperature, and also by inducing changes in a body of water’s self-purification system from decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water due to rises in temperature. [3] [edit] Climate change and precipitationA rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of soil erosion, and mass movement of land, a decline in water quality is probable, while water will car ry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants. [3] While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil moisture.It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases. Climate models show that while some regions should expect an increase in precipitation,[6] such as in the tropics and higher latitudes, other areas are expected to see a decrease, such as in the subtropics; this will ultimately cause a latitudinal variation in water distribution. 3] The areas receiving more precipitation are also expected to receive this increase during their winter and actually become drier during their summer,[6] creating even more of a variation of precipitation distribution. Naturally, the distribution of precipitation acro ss the planet is very uneven, causing constant variations in water availability in respective locations. Changes in precipitation affect the timing and magnitude of floods and droughts, shift runoff processes, and alter groundwater recharge rates.Vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as well as natural ecosystems. Decreased precipitation will deprive areas of water, causing water tables to fall and reservoirs and wetlands, rivers, and lakes to empty,[6] and possibly an increase in evaporation and evapotranspiration, depending on the accompanied rise in temperature. [5] Groundwater reserves will be depleted, and the remaining water has a greater chance of being of poor quality from saline or contaminants on the land surface. 3] [edit] Population growth The available fresh water being affected by climate is also being stretched across an ever-increasing global population. It is estimated that almost a quarter of the global population is living in an area that is using more than 20% of their renewable water supply; water use will rise with population while the water is also being aggravated by decreases in streamflow and groundwater caused by climate change.Even though some areas may see an increase in freshwater supply from an uneven distribution of precipitation increase, an increased use of water supply is expected. [8] An increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture,[9] believed to be the major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration.The next 50 years will likely be the last period of rapid agricultural expansion, but the larger and wealthier population over this time will demand more agriculture. [10] Population increase over the last two decades, at least in the United States, has also been accompanied by a shift to an increase in urban areas from rural areas,[11] which concentrates the demand for water into certain areas, and puts stress on the fresh water supply from industrial and human contaminants. 3] Urbanization causes overcrowding and increasingly unsanitary living conditions, especially in developing countries, which in turn exposes an increasingly number of people to disease. About 79% of the world’s population is in developing countries, which lack access to sanitary water and sewer systems, giving rises to disease and deaths from contaminated water and increased numbers of disease-carrying insects. [12] [edit] AgricultureAgriculture is dependent on available soil moisture, which is directly affected by climate dynamics, with precipitation being the input in this system and various processes being the output, such as evapotranspiration, surface runoff, drainage, and percolation into groundwater. Changes in climate, especially the changes in precipitation and evapotr anspiration predicted by climate models, will directly affect soil moisture, surface runoff, and groundwater recharge. In areas with decreasing precipitation as predicted by the climate models, soil moisture may be substantially educed. [6] With this in mind, agriculture in most areas needs irrigation already, which depletes fresh water supplies both by the physical use of the water and the degradation agriculture causes to the water. Irrigation increases salt and nutrient content in areas that wouldn’t normally be affected, and damages streams and rivers from damming and removal of water. Fertilizer enters both human and livestock waste streams that eventually enter groundwater, while nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals from fertilizer can acidify both soils and water.Certain agricultural demands may increase more than others with an increasingly wealthier global population, and meat is one commodity expected to double global food demand by 2050,[10] which directly aff ects the global supply of fresh water. Cows need water to drink, more if the temperature is high and humidity is low, and more if the production system the cow is in is extensive, since finding food takes more effort. Water is needed in processing of the meat, and also in the production of feed for the livestock.Manure can contaminate bodies of freshwater, and slaughterhouses, depending on how well they are managed, contribute waste such as blood, fat, hair, and other bodily contents to supplies of fresh water. [13] The transfer of water from agricultural to urban and suburban use raises concerns about agricultural sustainability, rural socioeconomic decline, food security, an increased carbon footprint from imported food, and decreased foreign trade balance. 9] The depletion of fresh water, as applied to more specific and populated areas, increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and political conflict in a numbe r of ways; rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas farther inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographical patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas. 8]CLimate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement[14] [edit] Water management The issue of the depletion of fresh water can be met by increased efforts in water management. [4] While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly. [6] Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for rehabilitation of water supplies,[4] and innovations to decrease overall demand may be important in planning water sustainability. 9] Water supply systems, as they exist now, were based on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate existing river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are operated based on past hydrologic records, and irrigation systems on historical temperature, water availability, and crop water requirements; these may not be a reliable guide to the future. Re-examining engineering designs, operations, optimizations, and planning, as well as re-evaluating legal, technical, and economic approaches to manage water resources are very important for the future of water management in response to water degradation.Another approach is water privatization; despite its economic and cultural effects, service quality and overall quality of the water can be more easily controlled and distributed. Rationality and sustainability is appropriate, and requires limits to overexploitation and pollution, and efforts in conservation.Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires. 8. This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. 3] It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degrad Measuring Land degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the environment around it: * A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land.This can be seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity, or a loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients. A decline in the lands â€Å"usefulness†: A loss or reduction in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be measured from a base line of past land use. * Loss of biodiversity: A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in the environmental quality. * Shifting ecological risk: increased vulnerability of the environment or people to destruction or crisis. This is measured through a base line in the form of pre-existing risk of crisis or destruction. A problem with measuring land degradation is that what one group of people call degradation, others might view as a benefit or opportunity.For example, heavy rainfall could make a scientific group be worried about high erosion of the soil while farmers could view it as a good opportunity to plant crops. [5] [edit] Causes Overgrazing by livestock can lead to land degradation Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:[citation needed] * Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation * Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices * Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting * Inappropriate irrigation[6] and overdrafting * Urban sprawl and commercial development Soil contamination including * Vehicle off-roading * Qua rrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals * Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and copses disappear * Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment * Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem * Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics [edit] Effects Soil erosion in a wheat field near Pullman, USA. The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the productivity of the land.[7] The major stresses on vulnerable land include: * Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water Soil acidification and the formation of acid sulfate soil resulting in barren soil * Soil alkalinisation owing to irrigation with water containing sodium bicarbonate leading to poor soil structure and reduced crop yields * Soil salination in irrigated land requiring soil salinity control to reclaim the land [8] * Soil waterlogging in irrigated land which calls for some form of subsurface land drainage to remediate t he negative effects [8] * Destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublands—to obtain timber, fuelwood and other products—at a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan.Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, fertilizer use, and a host of possible problems arising from faulty planning or management of irrigation. They are a major factor in Sri Lanka and the dominant one in Bangladesh. The role of population factors in land degradat ion processes obviously occurs in the context of the underlying causes. In the region, in fact, it is indeed one of the two along with land shortage, and land shortage itself ultimately is a consequence of continued population growth in the face of the finiteness of land resources. In the context of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils. High population density is not always related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practice s of the human population that can cause a landscape to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the land and make it more productive than it is in its natural state.Land degradation is important factor of internal displacement in many African and Asian countries[9] Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sewn. [edit] Sensitivity and resilience Sensitivity and resilience are measures of the vulnerability of a landscape to degradation. These two factors combine to explain the degree of vulnerability. [5] Sensitivity is the degree to which a land system undergoes change due to natural forces, human intervention or a combination of both.Resilience is the ability of a landscape to absorb change, without significantly altering the relationship between the relative importance and numbers of individuals and species that compose the community. [10] It also refers to the ability of the region to return to its original state after being changed in some way. The resilience of a landscape can be increased or decreased through human interaction based upon different methods of land-use management. Land that is degraded becomes less resilient than undegraded land, which can lead to even further degration through shocks to the landscape. [edit] Climate change Significant land degradation from seawater inundation, particularly in river deltas and on low-lying islands, is a potential hazard that was identified in a 2007 IPCC report. citation needed] As a result of sea-level rise from climate change, salinity levels can reach levels where agriculture becomes impossible in very low lying areas.Journal ofLand Degradation & DevelopmentVol 24 (6 Issues in 2013)Edited by: Professor Artemi Cerdà  Prin t ISSN: 1085-3278 Online ISSN: 1099-145X| * Description Land Degradation & Development is an international journal which seeks to promote rational study of the recognition, monitoring, control and rehabilitation of degradation in terrestrial environments. The journal focuses on: * what land degradation is; * what causes land degradation; * the impacts of land degradation * the scale of land degradation; * the history, current status or future trends of land degradation; * avoidance, mitigation and control of land degradation; * remedial actions to rehabilitate or restore degraded land; * sustainable land management.Land degradation may be defined as the loss of utility or potential utility through the reduction of or damage to physical, social, cultural or economic features, and/or reduction of ecosystem diversity. There may be a single cause or a complex mix of causes, some may be biogeophysical ('natural'), some socioeconomic ('human') and it is quite possible that cause(s) will be indirect, perhaps cumulative and difficult to identify. A major challenge is to learn how interactions between development and environment can be better managed to increase prospects for ecologically and socially sustainable improvements to human well-being.Development means attempts to improve human well-being or environmental quality in rich and poor nations on a sustained basis (sustainable development). Papers are invited on scientific, social, economic, political and historical aspects of terrestrial environmental degradation. Also welcome are analyses presenting forecasts of trends, case studies and discussion on management, planning and policy-making relating to the promotion of ecological sustainability and the counteraction of land degradation. In addition to original research papers, regional and thematic reviews, both invited and submitted, will be included, as will short communications, book reviews and applications of remote sensing and computer te chniques.The members of the Editorial Board are drawn from a comprehensive range of disciplines and nationalities. Together with a strict refereeing procedure this will ensure Land Degradation & Development maintains a high standard and presents material from a wide range of disciplines, from interdisciplinary study and with an international coverage. The subject matter will include the following topics: ENVIRONMENTS Degradation of: deserts, savannas, rangelands; forests, woodlands, tundra; mountain environments; wetlands, floodlands; farmland, irrigated land; sand-dunes; coastal zones, islands, urban, peri-urban environments. In polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.PROCESSES #39;Desertification', rangeland degradation; soil degradation (compaction, loss of fertility, reduced organic matter, pollution, waterlogging, acidification, salinization, alkalinization, 'laterite' and hard-pan formation); erosion; degradation of vegetation cover, 'deforestati on'; impoverishment of wildlife habitats, loss of species. CAUSES Climatic change; sea-level variation; drought; storms; earth processes (geomorphological, volcanicity, natural leaching of soils); bushfires; degradation as a consequence of: industry, urban growth, agrochemicals, agricultural modernization, energy production/consumption, mining, warfare, refugees or migrants, breakdown of traditional landuse strategies, altered communications, legislative changes, demographic changes, administrative causes, institutional causes, social or economic causes. PERCEPTIONSPerception/recognition of degradation, attitudes toward degradation; ethics and land degradation; indicators; monitoring, surveillance; assessment of significance; establishing past, present and future trends. IMPACTS Physical, biological, social, cultural and economic impacts (direct, indirect, cumulative); long-term and short-term impacts; assessment of significance; aesthetic impact of degradation. Water pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Raw sewage and industrial waste in the New River as it passes from Mexicali to Calexico, California. Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e. g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater).Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. * 1 Introduction * 2 Categories * 2. 1 Point sources * 2. 2 Nonpoint sources * 3 Groundwater pollution * 4 Causes * 4. 1 Pathogens * 4. 2 Chemical and other contaminants * 4. 3 Thermal pollution * 5 Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants * 6 Measurement * 6. 1 Sampling * 6. 2 Physical testing * 6. Chemical testing * 6. 4 Biological test ing * 7 Control of pollution * 7. 1 Domestic sewage * 7. 2 Industrial wastewater * 7. 3 Agricultural wastewater * 7. 4 Construction site stormwater * 7. 5 Urban runoff (stormwater) * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links| Introduction Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1][2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. 2] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. [3] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. [5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, develo ped countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. 6]Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water. Categories Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. [7] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surf ace water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. Point sourcesPoint source pollution – Shipyard – Rio de Janeiro. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. [8] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites. [9] Nonpoint sources Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source.NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agric ultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from â€Å"sheet flow† over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. Groundwater pollution See also: Hydrogeology Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex.Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. [7] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into s oil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model.Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc. ) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.Oxy gen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e. g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species. [10] Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. [11] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem.Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations. Pathogens A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow . Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems include: * Burkholderia pseudomallei * Cryptosporidium parvum * Giardia lamblia * Salmonella * Novovirus and other viruses * Parasitic worms (helminths). [12][13] High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. 14]This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms. [15] Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations. Chemical and other contaminants Muddy river polluted by sed iment. Photo courtesy of United States Geological Survey. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Organic water pollutants include:* Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform * Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease * Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds * Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff[16] * Tree and bush debris from logging operations * Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. * Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser. * Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) * Trichloroethylene * Perchlorate * Various chemi cal compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream in Auckland, New Zealand. Inorganic water pollutants include: * Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants) * Ammonia from food processing waste * Chemical waste as industrial by-products * Fertilizers containing nutrients–nitrates and phosphates—which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[16] * Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[16][17] and acid mine drainage * Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites. Macroscopic Pollution in Parks Milwaukee, WIMacroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed â€Å"floatables† in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as: * Tras h or garbage (e. g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters * Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets * Shipwrecks, large derelict ships. Thermal pollution Main article: Thermal pollution Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence.Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from t he base of reservoirs into warmer rivers. Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants See also: Marine pollution Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans.In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force.Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e. g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation. A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris.The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called â€Å"Great Pacific Garbage Patch† that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especi ally over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals).Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that mo ves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water.In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants. Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events. [18] Sampling Sampling of water for physical or chemical test ing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason â€Å"grab† samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity. Further information: Water quality#Sampling and Measurement Physical testing Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e. g. , total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Chemical testing See al so: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds.Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),[19]:102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),[19]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides. Biological testing Main article: Bioindicator Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Control of pollution Domestic sewage Main article: Sewage treatment Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity. Domestic sewage is 99. 9 percent pure water, while the other 0. 1 percent are pollutants.Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. [20] In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U. S. , most of these plants are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i. e. , secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial wastewater. 21]Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including: * utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[22] * repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[15] * increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option). A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil.Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e. g. in a rural community). Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e. g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e. g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system.Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with: * cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation * cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer * cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes. [23] Agricultural wastewaterMain article: Agricultural wastewater treatment Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa Nonpoint source controls Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. [10] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. [24][25]:pp. 4-95–4-96 Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge.Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. [25]:p. 2-9 Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients. [24][25]:pp. 4-37–4-38 To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. [26] Feedlot in the United States Point source wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are call ed concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to increasing government regulation. 27][28] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland.Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement. Construction site stormwater Silt fence installed on a construction site. Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of: * erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and * sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences. [29] Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of: * spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e. g. for concrete washout) and structures such as o verflow controls and diversion berms. [30] Urban runoff (stormwater) Main article: Urban runoff See also: Green infrastructure Retention basin for controlling urban runoff Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff.These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U. S. , may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions. 31] Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e. g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides). [32] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices. [33][34] Thermal pollution from runoff can be cont rolled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream. [31]:p. 5-58 *